APA Style Guide

Preparing the Reference List | Elements of a Citation | Documenting Sources in Text | Citing Nonperiodicals | Citing Periodicals | Citing Personal Communications

There have been a number of changes in APA style since the publication of the fourth edition of the APA Style Manual. Many of these changes concern references to electronic information sources. These changes are documented at the APA style Web site.

There are two parts to citing information in APA style, the list of works cited in the paper, called the reference list, and a parenthetical citation in the text of the paper which refers to a work in the reference list.

Preparing the Reference List

Formatting the Reference List

APA style requires that you compile a list of all references cited in your paper and place it at the end of your paper. This reference list must include all of the sources you cite in the text of your paper except personal communications and must provide enough information to enable the reader to retrieve the original source.

APA style makes a distinction between a reference list and a bibliography. A bibliography may include background readings and sources you consulted but did not cite. A reference list includes only those published sources actually cited in your paper. APA style does not require you to compile a bibliography of supplemental readings, only a reference list of cited works. APA style requires that each source cited in your paper, except personal communications, be included in your reference list and each source listed in your reference list must be cited at least once in the text of your paper.

Although the reference list appears at the end of your paper, you should compile it before you begin writing. As you identify information sources, record the publication information for each source. Many people use 3 x 5 cards for this, creating a separate note card for each source. It's easier to discard references that you don't use than to retrace your steps trying to find the publication information for a critical reference that you forgot to record.

If you use a bibliographic database manager, such as EndNote or Procite, be sure that you have downloaded the latest style updates. You will find these at the EndNote and Procite Web sites.

By compiling your reference list before you write, you have the information needed to create the parenthetical in-text citations. Each reference in the reference list must have a unique in-text citation; by having all your references prepared in advance, you can see which ones may need additional information in the citation to make them unique.

Formatting the Reference List

The reference list must be double-spaced. The first line of each reference is flush with the left margin and subsequent lines are indented one tab stop to the right. (Most word processing programs have a style or command called "hanging indentation.")

Arrange the references by the last name of the first author appearing on the source. When you have several authors with the same last name, order them by their first initials. If you have several sources by the same author, order them by the date of publication. When an author has written sources both by himself and in collaboration with others, place his single author entries first, then alphabetize the jointly authored references by the last names of the second authors.

The names of organizations may also be treated as authors. An organizational author may be a company, a committee, an association, or any other group. The distinguishing element is that the names of individual authors are not listed on the title page. Organization names should be spelled out in full, with the names of parent bodies given before subdivisions of the body (e.g., Southern Polytechnic State University, Department of English, Technical Communication, and Media Arts).

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Elements of a Citation

The elements which comprise a bibliographic citation vary according to the type of source being cited, but there are certain elements which are common to most types. Most references include the name(s) of the author(s), the date of publication, the title of the work, and other publication data.

APA style groups the different types of publication into two broad classes, periodicals and nonperiodicals, with online versions of each. For periodicals, the publication data includes the title of the periodical, volume number, and pages. For nonperiodicals, the publication data includes the place of publication and publisher. Some types of publication frequently exclude some bibliographical elements, however. Reference books, for example, often do not identify an author, while Web pages often fail to provide the name of the author, publisher, or date of publication.

The required elements and proper formats for the most common types of publication are given below. For others, check the APA Style Manual in the Reference Collection.

Citing Nonperiodicals | Citing Periodicals

Documenting Sources In Text

Examples: Two Authors | More Than Two Authors | No Authors Given | Citing a Specific Part of a Source

Whenever you draw on the work of others, you must give credit by documenting the ideas, data, opinions, or direct quotations that you use and indicating the sources from which you take them. Citing the work of recognized authorities and researchers also strengthens your own arguments. Document these sources by inserting brief citations within parentheses in the text of your paper. These in-text citations refer to items in your reference list and must give sufficient information to allow the reader to quickly identify the source. In most cases, the last name of the author and the date of publication are all that is required, unless there is more than one item in your reference list with the same last name and date:

In one study, 53 percent of the faculty queried believed that their students were unable to evaluate information sources (Smith, 2000).

In the parenthetical citation, separate the author's name and date with a comma. If the author's name appears in the text of your paper, the date alone is sufficient:

According to Smith (2000) ...

If your reference list includes two authors with the same last name, always use their first and middle initials to differentiate them, even if the publication dates are different:

R. L. Smith (2000) and A. J. Smith (1988) ...

One study showed (Smith, R. L., 2000) ... while according to another (Smith, A. J, 1988) ...

If an author has more than one publication in the same year, place letters a, b, c, etc. after the year to differentiate them. Use this scheme in your reference list, as well:

(Johnson, 1991a)

(Johnson, 1991b)

Two Authors

Any time a reference is written by more than one author, give the authors in the order given on the work. If a work cited is written by two authors, include both names each time you cite the work in your text:

(Jones & Smith, 1990)

More Than Two Authors

If there are three, four or five authors, give all names the first time the reference is cited, but only the first author followed by "et al." in each citation thereafter:

(Smith, Jones, & Lighthorn, 1986)

(Smith et al., 1986)

If a work is written by six or more authors, use the name of the first author and "et al." (Latin "et alii," and others) in all citations. If two different references would shorten to the same form, use the name of the first author and as many of the others as are need to distinguish them, followed by "et al.", even if the references have different dates:

(Smith, Jones, Lighthorn, et al., 1986)

(Smith, Jones, Brewer, et al., 1990)

No Authors Given

If there is no author given, do not use "Anonymous." Instead, alphabetize by the first significant word of the title (following "the," "a," "an" or similar words in foreign languages). Use "Anonymous" as an author only if it is specifically given in place of an author. (See the example on citing periodicals for the full citation.)

(Fire marshalls losing office, 2003)

Citing a Specific Part of a Source

Whenever you quote directly from a source, you must include the exact location within the document from which the quotation is taken. When you paraphrase an author's words, it isn't strictly required that you provide the exact location of the original, but it is often a good idea to do so. To indicate the exact location of a quotation from a print source, include the page number in the in-text citation.

(Smith, 1999, p. 26)

Most electronic documents do not provide page numbers; for the most part, the only ones that do are electronic images of printed pages, such as PDF files.

If an electronic source does provide page numbers, include them in the in-text citation, just as you would for a print source.
If there are no page numbers, but the document does have visible paragraph numbers, use the paragraph symbol (¶) or the abbreviation "para." followed by the paragraph number.

(Jones, 2001, ¶ 4)

(Wilson, 2000, para. 6)

If there are neither page numbers nor visible paragraph numbers, but there are headings in the document, give the heading and the number of the paragraph under that heading. Use either the paragraph symbol (¶) or the abbreviation.

(Miles, 2001, Conclusion, ¶ 2)

(Hansen, 2002, Introduction, para. 1)

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Citing Personal Communications

Personal communications include a wide variety of information sources. Personal letters, memos, interviews, conversations, e-mail messages and messages from online chat sessions or discussion groups are personal communications. There are two points to keep in mind when referencing personal communications:

Personal communications do not represent recoverable data; a person wishing to check your references would be unable to obtain copies of letters, memos, conversations or e-mail messages.
Since personal communications are not subject to review by editors or scholarly peers, they may be of somewhat limited scholarly value.

Since personal communications are not recoverable, they are not included in reference lists. Personal communications are cited in in-text citations only. The in-text citation should give the initials and last name of the source, the statement "personal communication," and as exact a date as possible.

(L. Hall, personal communication, January 31, 2002)

B. J. Smith (personal communication, May 21, 2002) reports ...

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APA Style This guide is based on the handbook for preparing manuscripts for submission to journals published by The American Psychological Association. This style is accepted by many other publications as well, and is often used in the preparation of research papers for college and university courses. If you have questions which are not answered by this guide, you may consult the APA Style Manual: REFERENCE BF76.7 .P83 2001 American Psychological Association. (2001). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association ( 5th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Preparing the Reference List \| Elements of a Citation \| Documenting Sources in Text \| Citing Nonperiodicals \| Citing Periodicals \| Citing Personal Communications There have been a number of changes in APA style since the publication of the fourth edition of the APA Style Manual. Many of these changes concern references to electronic information sources. These changes are documented at the APA style Web site. There are two parts to citing information in APA style, the list of works cited in the paper, called the reference list, and a parenthetical citation in the text of the paper which refers to a work in the reference list. Preparing the Reference List Formatting the Reference List APA style requires that you compile a list of all references cited in your paper and place it at the end of your paper. This reference list must include all of the sources you cite in the text of your paper except personal communications and must provide enough information to enable the reader to retrieve the original source. APA style makes a distinction between a reference list and a bibliography. A bibliography may include background readings and sources you consulted but did not cite. A reference list includes only those published sources actually cited in your paper. APA style does not require you to compile a bibliography of supplemental readings, only a reference list of cited works. APA style requires that each source cited in your paper, except personal communications, be included in your reference list and each source listed in your reference list must be cited at least once in the text of your paper. Although the reference list appears at the end of your paper, you should compile it before you begin writing. As you identify information sources, record the publication information for each source. Many people use 3 x 5 cards for this, creating a separate note card for each source. It's easier to discard references that you don't use than to retrace your steps trying to find the publication information for a critical reference that you forgot to record. If you use a bibliographic database manager, such as EndNote or Procite, be sure that you have downloaded the latest style updates. You will find these at the EndNote and Procite Web sites. By compiling your reference list before you write, you have the information needed to create the parenthetical in-text citations. Each reference in the reference list must have a unique in-text citation; by having all your references prepared in advance, you can see which ones may need additional information in the citation to make them unique. Formatting the Reference List The reference list must be double-spaced. The first line of each reference is flush with the left margin and subsequent lines are indented one tab stop to the right. (Most word processing programs have a style or command called "hanging indentation.") Arrange the references by the last name of the first author appearing on the source. When you have several authors with the same last name, order them by their first initials. If you have several sources by the same author, order them by the date of publication. When an author has written sources both by himself and in collaboration with others, place his single author entries first, then alphabetize the jointly authored references by the last names of the second authors. The names of organizations may also be treated as authors. An organizational author may be a company, a committee, an association, or any other group. The distinguishing element is that the names of individual authors are not listed on the title page. Organization names should be spelled out in full, with the names of parent bodies given before subdivisions of the body (e.g., Southern Polytechnic State University, Department of English, Technical Communication, and Media Arts). Top Elements of a Citation The elements which comprise a bibliographic citation vary according to the type of source being cited, but there are certain elements which are common to most types. Most references include the name(s) of the author(s), the date of publication, the title of the work, and other publication data. APA style groups the different types of publication into two broad classes, periodicals and nonperiodicals, with online versions of each. For periodicals, the publication data includes the title of the periodical, volume number, and pages. For nonperiodicals, the publication data includes the place of publication and publisher. Some types of publication frequently exclude some bibliographical elements, however. Reference books, for example, often do not identify an author, while Web pages often fail to provide the name of the author, publisher, or date of publication. The required elements and proper formats for the most common types of publication are given below. For others, check the APA Style Manual in the Reference Collection. Citing Nonperiodicals \| Citing Periodicals Documenting Sources In Text Examples: Two Authors \| More Than Two Authors \| No Authors Given \| Citing a Specific Part of a Source Whenever you draw on the work of others, you must give credit by documenting the ideas, data, opinions, or direct quotations that you use and indicating the sources from which you take them. Citing the work of recognized authorities and researchers also strengthens your own arguments. Document these sources by inserting brief citations within parentheses in the text of your paper. These in-text citations refer to items in your reference list and must give sufficient information to allow the reader to quickly identify the source. In most cases, the last name of the author and the date of publication are all that is required, unless there is more than one item in your reference list with the same last name and date: In one study, 53 percent of the faculty queried believed that their students were unable to evaluate information sources (Smith, 2000). In the parenthetical citation, separate the author's name and date with a comma. If the author's name appears in the text of your paper, the date alone is sufficient: According to Smith (2000) ... If your reference list includes two authors with the same last name, always use their first and middle initials to differentiate them, even if the publication dates are different: R. L. Smith (2000) and A. J. Smith (1988) ... One study showed (Smith, R. L., 2000) ... while according to another (Smith, A. J, 1988) ... If an author has more than one publication in the same year, place letters a, b, c, etc. after the year to differentiate them. Use this scheme in your reference list, as well: (Johnson, 1991a) (Johnson, 1991b) Two Authors Any time a reference is written by more than one author, give the authors in the order given on the work. If a work cited is written by two authors, include both names each time you cite the work in your text: (Jones & Smith, 1990) More Than Two Authors If there are three, four or five authors, give all names the first time the reference is cited, but only the first author followed by "et al." in each citation thereafter: (Smith, Jones, & Lighthorn, 1986) (Smith et al., 1986) If a work is written by six or more authors, use the name of the first author and "et al." (Latin "et alii," and others) in all citations. If two different references would shorten to the same form, use the name of the first author and as many of the others as are need to distinguish them, followed by "et al.", even if the references have different dates: (Smith, Jones, Lighthorn, et al., 1986) (Smith, Jones, Brewer, et al., 1990) No Authors Given If there is no author given, do not use "Anonymous." Instead, alphabetize by the first significant word of the title (following "the," "a," "an" or similar words in foreign languages). Use "Anonymous" as an author only if it is specifically given in place of an author. (See the example on citing periodicals for the full citation.) (Fire marshalls losing office, 2003) Citing a Specific Part of a Source Whenever you quote directly from a source, you must include the exact location within the document from which the quotation is taken. When you paraphrase an author's words, it isn't strictly required that you provide the exact location of the original, but it is often a good idea to do so. To indicate the exact location of a quotation from a print source, include the page number in the in-text citation. (Smith, 1999, p. 26) Most electronic documents do not provide page numbers; for the most part, the only ones that do are electronic images of printed pages, such as PDF files. If an electronic source does provide page numbers, include them in the in-text citation, just as you would for a print source. If there are no page numbers, but the document does have visible paragraph numbers, use the paragraph symbol (¶) or the abbreviation "para." followed by the paragraph number. (Jones, 2001, ¶ 4) (Wilson, 2000, para. 6) If there are neither page numbers nor visible paragraph numbers, but there are headings in the document, give the heading and the number of the paragraph under that heading. Use either the paragraph symbol (¶) or the abbreviation. (Miles, 2001, Conclusion, ¶ 2) (Hansen, 2002, Introduction, para. 1) Top Citing Personal Communications Personal communications include a wide variety of information sources. Personal letters, memos, interviews, conversations, e-mail messages and messages from online chat sessions or discussion groups are personal communications. There are two points to keep in mind when referencing personal communications: Personal communications do not represent recoverable data; a person wishing to check your references would be unable to obtain copies of letters, memos, conversations or e-mail messages. Since personal communications are not subject to review by editors or scholarly peers, they may be of somewhat limited scholarly value. Since personal communications are not recoverable, they are not included in reference lists. Personal communications are cited in in-text citations only. The in-text citation should give the initials and last name of the source, the statement "personal communication," and as exact a date as possible. (L. Hall, personal communication, January 31, 2002) B. J. Smith (personal communication, May 21, 2002) reports ... Top